Diploes (Intermolecular Bonding)

Dipolar molecules are any molecules that have a positive end, and a negative end.

When a molecule has a dipole it is polarised.

This is a force that binds molecules together.

This is what guides physical states (Whether something is Solid, Gaseous or Liquid etc.)

There are three types of Dipoles:

1- Permanent Dipoles:

HCl molecules have a dipole.

When two atoms sharing a (covalent) bond, and have a really, really, really different electro-negativity (Different charges), they become permanent dipoles, because they're so, so, so attracted to each other. Cute.

HCl has a permanent dipole as Cl has a much higher electronegativity than H.

2- Instantaneous Dipoles:

This happens completely randomly.

This is when the electrons in a molecule suddenly move to one side of the "Cloud", instead of being evenly distributed.

When this happens next to other molecules, Induced Dipoles occur!

3- Induced Dipoles:

This happens completely randomly.

This is when the electrons in a molecule suddenly move to one side of the "Cloud", instead of being evenly distributed.

Badass elements: Fluorine and Bromine

Fluorine is the most reactive Halogen, and is in fact more reactive than most elements in the periodic table as far as I'm aware (Except the badass radioactive ones).

Fluorine is too reactive to be put in glass, this is just an imitation of what Fluorine gas looks like.

Fluorine is a pain to transport, because it tends to react with whatever you put it in.

Fluorine is an oxidising agent with an insane charge density.

Tends to chill around in nature as Calcium Fluoride.

Calcium Fluoride physically looks much like Titanium(IV)Oxide.

Extraction:
CaF  +  H2SO4   --> CaSO4 + 2HF
Uses include Toothpaste, HCFC making and facial surgery.

Bromine is another halogen, named after "Bromos", greek for "Stench".
Bromine can only be transported in lead tanks, or similar, which are very heavy. Therefore, it's often transported by rail.

Mmm Gas-y

Uses include Flame retardants (TBBA), Pharmaceutics, Pesticides, Dyes, Fumigants like Bromoethane.

Industrial terminology

Raw Material: The basic stuff. E.g. Logs, Brine, Rock, Ores...etc
Feedstock: Semi useful things made from the raw materials, such as Chlorine.
BiProduct: Something you accidentally made.
CoProduct: Something you accidentally made, but is useful.

Example:

Making Titanium(IV)Oxide:

Rutile Ore, Rock salt and water ----> Titanium(IV)Oxide, Chlorine and Water ---->Titanium Oxide.

The Rutile Ore, the rock salt and the water are Raw Material/Feedstock. Because it's the input.

Titanium(IV)Oxide is the product. Because it's what you wanted.

Chlorine is the CoProduct. Because it's not what you wanted, but you can still use it for something else.

Extraction of Chlorine

Chlorine lays around in the form of Sodium Chloride.

1- We could use electrolysis to extract it. This is called the "Membrane Cell" method.

• Developed in the 1980s.
• Kinda costly because the semi periemable membrane is made of Teflon.
• Low running cost.
• Produces butt loads of Chlorine.
• Less environmental effects than the Mercury Cell.

Electrolysis is separating 2 substances in an ionic aqueous solution using electric current.
Ions have a charge. When electricity starts running through the aqueous solution, the positive ions get attracted to the cathode (Negative side) and the negative ions get attracted to the Anode (Positive side).

Feedstock is Brine

Co products of Chlorine2 are Hydrogen2 and NaOH

Half equations:

2Cl- --> Cl2 + 2e- (Anode)

2H2O + 2e- --> 2OH- + H2 (Cathode)

2- The Mercury Cell is another way of extracting Chlorine. 

• Mercury is poisonous.
• The Mercury cell is very effective.
• More costly than the Membrane Cell.
• Uses 1.05g of Mercury per ton of Chlorine.
• Becoming less popular with the Membrane Cell around now.

3- There's another method for extracting Chlorine, the Diaphragm Cell.

Works in the same exact way as a Membrane cell, only that it has a Diaphragm in the middle, as opposed to a Membrane. They're both Semi Permeable textures anyway.

Aqua Regia

One of those things that you stumble upon on the internet, add to your favourites because you think it's interesting and never go back to.

Have a look.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_regia

Electronic Structure. A bit further detail.

Basically, In GCSE, you were lied to because you were (And probably still are) too dumb to understand the concept that orbitals are fake. Kinda.


Electrons are actually held in Subshells within Shells.

Capacity Hierarchy:

Sub-shells > Shells > Orbitals

So starting from basic to complex:

• Shells are the big "Circle" or "Orbit" around the element.
• Sub-shells are smaller shells that form the big Shells. 

• The number of Subshells in a Shell = The number of the shell. 

Like this!

• For example, Shell 3 (n=3) has 3 sub orbitals.
• Subshells come in different capacities.

'S' can hold  2 electrons.
'P' can hold  6 electrons.
'D' can hold 10 electrons.
'F' can hold 14 electrons.

• Orbitals are the very small thing. A part of a subshell. There is a maximum of 2 electrons held in each orbital. 

In summary, this is the hierarchy of electronic configuration of Sub-shells:

For example (Putting this into use)

The electronic sub-shell configuration of Gold:

1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p6, 4d10, 4f14, 5s2, 5p6, 5d10, 6s1

Where as the first number (Before the letter) is the Energy Level.

Where as the second number (After the letter) is the Number of Electrons held in the subshell.

Putting it into order to make it look tidy:

 The things this can tell us:

Halogens

The Halogens are 5 non metallic group 7 elements in the periodic table. They have slightly different properties because of their electronic setting (having 7 electrons in their outermost shells).

The most significant property of Halogens is their greatly high reactivity.

In terms of patterns and trends, as you move further down the group, electronegativity and reactivity decreases, while boiling points increase. (Exception of Astatine, because that stuff's radioactive).

Halogens have a high electronegativity, and are particularly reactive to form stable ionic crystals (Salts) as the name suggests, halo meaning salt and gen meaning to form.

**Sodium Chloride is the most abundant Halogen-produced Salt**

Sodium Chloride Crystals

The charge density of the nucleus of Halogens is important because it shows that they have a high proton charge, which grants them a good electronegativity making them ideal anions, for pairing with the 1st group cations such as Na+.

Halogens, as they have 7 electrons in their outer shells, have an oxidation number of -1, with a few exceptions, for example if it was binded with Oxygen or another Halogen that is more reactive, with Fluorine being the most reactive one.

The difference in reactivity between the group 7 elements is within the fact that they're in consecutive periods, meaning there's a hierarchy relating between the number of outermost shells and the reactivity of the element. This is relating to the idea that more rings around the nucleus make the outer-most shell further away from the centre point of electronegativity, so the pull is spread over a large area decreasing its concentration.

Halogens as oxidation agents follow this general form: